Educator as an assessor - 3333 Words

TABLE OF CONTENTS QUESTION 1: Definitions of assessment conceptS 2 a. Moderation 2 b. Recording 2 c. Continuous assessment 2 d. Criterion-referenced assessment 3 QUESTION 2: â€Å"THE NOBLE PROFESSION† – THE PURPOSE AND IMPORTANCE OF ASSESSMENT IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CURRICULUM 3 QUESTION 3: COMPARISON OF FORMATIVE AND SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT 4 QUESTION 4: ASSESSMENT ACTIVITY SCORING RUBRIC 7 QUESTION 5: DESCRIPTION AND IMPLEMENTATION OF ASSESSMENT PRINCIPLES 8 a. Validity 8 b. Fairness 8 c. Currency 8 QUESTION 6: DISCUSSION OF THE ROLE OF THE MODERATOR IN ASSESSMENT 9 a. The Role of the Moderator before Assessment is Conducted 9 b. The Role of the Moderator following Completion of Assessment Tasks 10 QUESTION 7: APPLICATION†¦show more content†¦Assessment can also diagnose any obstacles to learning, learning difficulties or learning hiatuses (Dreyer, 2014:17). Educators can utilise assessment to determine what learners bring into a learning cycle so as to develop instruction tailored to learner’s requirements and to build on existing knowledge and skills (Spiller, 2009:6 7). This diagnostic purpose can be further used to determine if learners require further instruction and to assess if learners are prepared for the next stage (Dreyer, 2014:7). Feedback Assessment provides feedback that learners can use to determine their progress, in relation to learning outcomes (Spiller, 2009:6). Feedback assists the educator in determining if teaching was effective and to determine how appropriate modifications and adaptations can be made to improve future instruction (Dreyer, 2014:7). Learning opportunities Assessments provide learners opportunities to develop mastery of their ideas, skills and competencies, whilst educators use assessment tasks as both teaching and learning tools (Spiller, 2009:6 7). Self-Evaluation Assessment enables educators to provide feedback to their learners, this in turn promotes self-evaluation by the learner, as they use the assessment feedback to scrutinise and make judgements about the quality of their work (Spiller, 2009:6 7). Motivation Assessments can provideShow MoreRelatedEDUCATOR AS AN ASSESSOR9054 Words   |  37 PagesIntroduction 2 I. Question 1 2 a. Assessment Task 1: the educator assessment 2 b. Assessment Task 2: peer assessment 7 c. Assessment Task 3: self assessment/reflection 9 II. Question 2 12 a. AssessmentRead MoreEdahod5 – Te Educator as Assessor (Assignment 02)2881 Words   |  12 PagesEDAHOD5 – The Educator as Assessor Assignment: 02 Question 1 Assessment Activity Word processing evaluation – Apply the word processing knowledge you have learnt and create a one page document with any type of information containing a document heading, paragraphs and a footer detailing page number and student name. The document also needs to contain a numerical multi level list and a table consisting of 3 columns and 4 rows. Assessment checklist * Heading * Paragraphs *Read MoreEdahod5 – Te Educator as Assessor (Assignment 02)2872 Words   |  12 PagesEDAHOD5 – The Educator as Assessor Assignment: 02 Question 1 Assessment Activity Word processing evaluation – Apply the word processing knowledge you have learnt and create a one page document with any type of information containing a document heading, paragraphs and a footer detailing page number and student name. The document also needs to contain a numerical multi level list and a table consisting of 3 columns and 4 rows. 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In addition, teachers can use this program to improve student ability to narrate the story which is important for accessing schema and comprehension. Training Required for Personnel: Read Naturally provides a variety of training options for educators who purchase the program. The program has a detailed teacher Teacher’s Guide. The sixty-eight page guide provides explicit direction in using the program. In addition, the company provides regional seminars, online coaching, self-study conferences

Burden Invasive Pneumococcal Disease Health And Social Care Essay Free Essays

Streptococcus pneumoniae claims 1 million child deceases every twelvemonth worldwide ( 1 ) . Approximately 90 % of deceases occur in developing states. For every 1 kid that dies of pneumonia in a developed state, more than 2000 kids dice of pneumonia in developing states ( 2 ) . We will write a custom essay sample on Burden Invasive Pneumococcal Disease Health And Social Care Essay or any similar topic only for you Order Now The SAARC states overall are in the zone with high incidence of pneumococcal disease ( 1 ) but no survey has attempted to happen out the same. The child mortality rates ( lt ; 5 ) are high in the part ; runing from 17/1000 for Srilanka to 149/1000 for Afghanistan. Pneumonia claims 11 % of U5 child deceases in India, Maldives, Bangladesh and Pakistan ; 23 % of U5 child deceases in Afghanistan and 19 % in Bhutan with lowest in Srilanka 6 % . ( 3 ) . Pneumonia is the taking cause of U5 decease in Pakistan ( 4 ) but merely 50 % receive antibiotic intervention ( 5 ) . The Million Death Study reported that pneumonia accounted for 27AÂ ·6 % deceases out of entire 12260 deceases in kids from 1-59 months ( 6 ) . S. pneumoniae is one of the major causes of fatal pneumonias in kids ( 7 ) . Besides pneumonia S.pn is besides known to do meningitis which is another fatal status for kids. Many more diseases are to the name of S.pn like ague otitis media, joint gushs and bacteraemia etc. Estimates of pneumococcal disease load are needed so as to use the resources for kid endurance. In Bangladesh, the theoretical account predicts a pneumococcal disease incidence of 3351 instances per 100,000 kids younger than 5 old ages. A population-based, active-surveillance, active-case sensing survey measured an invasive pneumococcal disease rate of 447 instances per 100,000 kids younger than 5 old ages ( 8 ) . Unfortunately the grounds for appraisal of pneumococcal disease in low/middle income states is less. The load of pneumococcal disease is highest in kids and the aged population in both more and less developed states. The intervention of pneumococcal infections is complicated by the world-wide outgrowth of opposition to penicillin and other antibiotics ( 9 ) . The pneumococcal conjugate vaccinums are helpful but the effectivity of these vaccinums is dependent upon the pneumococcal disease load and serotype coverage of the vaccinum. ( 10 ) Aim: The primary aims of this systematic reappraisal are To cognize the load of invasive pneumococcal disease. To find the demand for debut of pneumococcal conjugate vaccinum in the immunisation agenda. Methods: We performed a systematic hunt of the published literature and besides tried to get information about the unpublished literature from assorted research workers of the part. Beginnings of Datas: The hunts were current as of January 2013 and we identified articles with information on pneumococcal invasive disease among kids lt ; 5 old ages of age. We searched 3 Databases: Pubmed, Embase and The Cochrane library. The mention lists of the obtained articles were farther searched for surveies. Non English articles were non included. The hunt inside informations are given in the appendix I. Searching were done by 2 writers ( NJ, HK ) . HK helped in obtaining full text articles. Definitions Used: SAARC states: South Asian Association for Regional Co-Operation includes Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Srilanka and Maldives. Burden of pneumococcal disease: We have defined load of pneumococcal disease as the figure of positive pneumococcal isolates from the suspected population. Pneumonia: Symptoms: cough or hard external respiration, and marks: external respiration gt ; 50 breaths per minute for infant aged two months to less than one twelvemonth, take a breathing gt ; 40 per minute for kid aged one to five old ages, and no thorax indrawing, stridor or danger marks. ( 11 ) Severe pneumonia: Symptoms: cough or hard eupneic plus any general danger mark or chest indrawing or stridor in a unagitated kid. General danger marks for kids aged two months to five old ages: unable to imbibe or suckle ; pukes everything ; paroxysms ; lethargy or unconscious ( 11 ) . Clinical diagnosing of meningitis is more straightforward than that of pneumonia. The definition of pneumonia is based on the incorporate direction of childhood infections ( IMCI ) attack, which includes other ague lower respiratory tract infections and deficiencies specificity. In add-on, aetiologic diagnosing of bacterial pathogens is easier in CSF than in blood. Meningitis: ( 11 ) Suspected: Any individual with sudden oncoming of febrility ( gt ; 38.5 AÂ °C rectal or gt ; 38.0 AÂ °C axillary ) and one of the undermentioned marks: cervix stiffness, altered consciousness or other meningeal mark. Probable: A suspected instance with cerebrospinal fluid ( CSF ) scrutiny demoing at least one of the followers: cloudy visual aspect ; leucocytosis ( gt ; 100 cells/mm3 ) ; leucocytosis ( 10-100 cells/ mm3 ) AND either an elevated protein ( gt ; 100 mg/dl ) or decreased glucose ( lt ; 40 mg/dl ) . Confirmed: A instance that is laboratory-confirmed by turning ( i.e. culturing ) or placing ( i.e. by Gram discoloration or antigen sensing methods ) a bacterial pathogen ( Hib, Diplococcus pneumoniae or meningococcus ) in the CSF or from the blood, in a kid with a clinical syndrome consistent with bacterial meningitis ( WHO, 2003 ) . Non Pneumonia Non Meningitis: All infections other than pneumonia and meningitis have been categorized under this header. Invasive Pneumococcal disease: When Diplococcus pneumoniae has been identified from one of the otherwise unfertile sites of the organic structure like blood, CSF, pleural fluid etc either by civilization or by LAT/PCR or other technique. The surveies where the defined instances have some other parametric quantities or if there were some other standards no effort was made to standardise them. Inclusion standards: Surveies ; prospective/retrospective ; with kids lt ; 5years of age as /or portion of the studied population. Surveies done in infirmary or community scene. Surveies with possible informations available on S.pneumoniae isolated from kids lt ; 5 old ages of age. Surveies with at least 12 months of surveillance were included in order to get the better of the seasonal nature of pneumococcal diseases. Surveies conducted in SAARC states. The inclusion was decided by 2 writers ( NJ, KK ) and choice appraisal was done by 2 writers ( NJ, KK ) . Discrepancies, if any, were resolved by treatment with 3rd writer ( MS ) and the finding of fact was considered concluding. If the exact information was non available we have contacted the writers and tried to decide the disagreements The surveies which have commented merely on pneumococcal serotypes A ; /or antibiotic opposition have been excluded from pooled analysis. We excluded instance studies, columns, vaccinum surveies, literature reappraisals and the surveies in which nasopharyngeal aspirates, pharynx swabs or oropharyngeal swabs were the lone samples to find the causative being. Data aggregation and direction: Three writers ( BE ; AK, SS ) abstracted informations individually from the included surveies in a predesigned tabular array that included survey design, puting, no. of suspected instances, no. civilization samples taken amp ; positive civilizations obtained, and no. positive civilizations for Diplococcus pneumoniae. The information from Hospital based surveies and population based surveies were abstracted individually. To decide the disagreements sing the abstracted informations treatment with the other referees were done and consensus was reached. Sing some losing informations the writers were contacted and if the disagreements were non resolved they were non taken up for pooled analysis. The community based surveies available merely give information about pneumococcal pneumonia instances in the community. Datas analysis: Data analysis was done utilizing CMA V2 by 4 writers ( NJ, MS, KK, and AA ) . The similar surveies were pooled together. Sub group analysis for finding the IPD load in India was done and besides sub-group analysis for finding IPD in kids lt ; 5 old ages was done. The community based surveies, infirmary based prospective and retrospective surveies have besides been analyzed individually. Consequences: Datas reviewed: We found 700 published articles through electronics and manual searching. After rubric and abstract testing 40 full text articles were retrieved and 21 surveies ( 8, 12-31 ) were included for the reappraisal and 19 were excluded ( 32-50 ) ( fig 1 ) Community based surveies were non available from Afghanistan, India, Nepal, Bhutan A ; Srilanka. Because the life conditions are about same and there is besides geographic similarity we have considered the surveies from Bangladesh and Pakistan as representative of the SAARC states. Similarly there were no infirmary based surveies from Afghanistan and Bhutan so we have taken the surveies from remainder of the states and generalized them for these states. We have included a sum of 21 surveies for this systematic reappraisal A ; mentioned in tabular array I. The inclusion was decided by 3 writers ( MS, NJ, KK ) and quality marking was done by 3 writers ( MS, NJ, KK ) . The surveies with mark of 6 or more were considered to be good quality grounds. Hospital Based Prospective Surveies: SAARC states: We identified 15 infirmary based prospective surveies ( 12-19, 22, 24-27, 29, 31 ) from assorted SAARC states and analyzed them for finding the invasive pneumococcal disease load in kids populating in these states and besides did a subgroup analysis for kids less than 5 old ages of age. These surveies show that 3.5 % ( 95 % CI 1.9-6.4 ) of kids admitted to infirmaries with diagnosing of invasive diseases like terrible pneumonia or meningitis or sepsis are due to S. pn ( fig 3 ) . Eight surveies ( 13, 15, 16, 18, 24-27 ) show that 1.5 % ( 95 % CI 0.6-3.4 ) of kids admitted as terrible pneumonia have S. pn as the causative being ( Fig 5 ) . Ten surveies ( 12, 14, 16, 17, 19, 22, 24, 26, 27, 29 ) of the included surveies show that 7.6 % ( 95 % CI 4.1-13.7 ) of kids with likely or confirmed meningitis have S.pn as a causative being ( fig 7 ) . S.pn is one of the major bacteriums doing 20 % ( 95 % CI 12.9-29.9 ) of invasive bacterial diseases ( fig 4 ) . 11 % ( 95 % CI 6.5-17.9 ) of terrible bacterial pneumonia are caused by S.pn ( fig 6 ) . S.pn has been an aetiologic agent in 33.1 % ( 95 % CI 23.1-44.8 ) instances of bacterial meningitis ( fig 8 ) . Children less than 5 old ages of age: Out of the 15 surveies merely 11 surveies ( 13, 15, 17, 18, 22, 24-27, 29, 31 ) have clear information on invasive pneumococcal disease in kids less 5 old ages of age. The surveies show that S.pn causes 2.7 % ( 95 % CI 1.1-6.2 ) hospitalizations due to all invasive disease ; in kids lt ; 5 old ages of age ( fig 9 ) . Merely 7 surveies ( 13, 15, 18, 24-27 ) had clear information on pneumococcal pneumonia in kids lt ; 5 old ages of age and showed that 1.5 % ( 95 % CI 0.5-4.3 ) of terrible pneumonias are due to S.pn ( fig 11 ) . Similarly 6 surveies ( 17, 22, 24, 26, 29 ) showed that S.pn is the being responsible for 7.1 % ( 95 % CI 2.6-17.5 ) meningitis instances in the age group ( fig 13 ) . S.pn remains the major bacterial cause of all invasive diseases in kids U5 old ages of age doing 19.2 % ( 95 % CI 11.5-30.3 ) of invasive bacterial diseases ( fig 10 ) . 10.8 % ( 95 % CI 6.4-17.6 ) terrible bacterial pneumonias are due to S.pn ( fig 12 ) and 35.1 % ( 95 % CI 22.1-50.8 ) of pyogenic meningitis is due to S.pn. ( fig 14 ) . Bharat: We found 9 surveies from India ( 12-19, 22 ) which showed that S.pn causes 7.9 % ( 95 % CI 3.8-15.7 ) of invasive diseases in kids ( fig 15 ) . S.pn has been an aetiologic agent in 3.9 % ( 95 % CI 1.2-11.7 ) kids with terrible pneumonia ( fig 17 ) and is besides a major bacterial cause of pneumonia in kids doing 14 % ( 95 % CI 5.8-30.1 ) of bacterial pneumonias ( fig 18 ) . S.pn has been a causative agent in 10.4 % ( 95 % CI 5.8-18.1 ) of kids with meningitis ( fig 19 ) and once more a major bacterial cause of pyogenic meningitis ( fig 20 ) . The hospital prevalence of S.pn in Indian kids is more than that of all other SAARC states. Children less than 5 old ages of age: Five surveies ( 13, 15, 17, 18, 22 ) gave clear information on pneumococcal diseases in kids under 5 twelvemonth of age in India. The image does non alter in this age group of Indian kids where S.pn is prevailing in 8.2 % ( 95 % CI 4.1-16.6 ) of all hospitalized kids with suspected invasive bacterial disease ( fig 21 ) and S.pn becomes a major bacterial cause of invasive bacterial diseases with 21.2 % ( 95 % CI 9.4-41.0 ) of all invasive bacterial diseases are due to S.pn ( fig22 ) . 5.4 % ( 95 % CI 2-14.1 ) of terrible pneumonias in infirmary wards are due to S. pn ( fig 23 ) A ; 16.5 % ( 95 % CI 12.8-16.2 ) meningitis in kids less than 5 old ages describing to infirmaries are due to pneumococcus. In 13.6 % ( 95 % CI 5.5-29.8 ) of all bacterial pneumonia ( fig 24 ) A ; 39.3 % ( 95 % CI 27.5-52.6 ) of pyogenic meningitis ( fig 26 ) S.pn has been isolated and is a major cause of these diseases in India. Hospital Based Retrospective Surveies: Two infirmary based retrospective surveies ( 21, 28 ) from India were included in this reappraisal. The pooling of these surveies together showed that 15.5 % ( 95 % CI 0.5-88 ) of invasive pneumococcal disease instances amongst the entire admitted patients with invasive bacterial diseases ( Fig 27 ) . The assurance intervals for this group are broad because one survey ( 21 ) which is merely on bacterial meningitis and has a little sample size with comparatively more proportion of pneumococcal isolates. Population Based Surveies: Four surveies ( 8, 20, 23, 30 ) from the SAARC states were included in the reappraisal. These surveies are from Pakistan and Bangladesh. These surveies merely discuss the kids under 5 old ages of age. These surveies show that approximately 13.4 % ( 95 % CI 6.7-25 ) of all invasive bacterial diseases in community are due to S. pn ( fig 29 ) Inference of all the analysis: The consequence from the population based surveies ( 13.4 % ) is comparable to that from the infirmary based prospective surveies ( 19 % ) and besides to those obtained from retrospective surveies ( 15.5 % ) . The pneumococcal disease prevalence in SAARC states varies between 13 % – 19 % of all invasive bacterial diseases. Discussion: Our findings show that S. pn is prevailing in 19 % of all hospitalizations in kids of SAARC states and is hence one of the major cause of concern every bit far as child wellness is concerned. Pooling the Indian surveies we found that pneumococcal diseases are 25 % of all invasive bacterial diseases in kids of India. These figures might be an underestimation of the current state of affairs as the surveies discuss merely hospitalized instances, the milder signifiers may travel unreported. S.pn is a major bacterial cause for terrible pneumonia and besides for pyogenic meningitis in kids of this part. The community based surveies besides show that in 13 % of bacterial instances were due to S.pn but once more these surveies besides discussed the terrible diseases merely and did non describe the milder signifiers. The consequences of our reappraisal are comparable to other reappraisals ( 1 ) which showed high prevalence of pneumococcal diseases in India. The consequences of community based surveies show that __ % of all bacterial invasive diseases in community are due to pneumococcus which is comparable to the consequence from the infirmary based prospective surveies. An unpublished information from one site of a multicentric test ( ISPOT survey ) from India showed that approx 38 % of kids with terrible pneumonia ( Radiologically confirmed ) had S. pn isolated from the nasopharyngeal aspirates or pharynx swabs. The survey besides showed that unwritten Amoxil administered at place was effectual in handling terrible pneumonia. The No Shots survey from Pakistan ( 51 ) concluded that place intervention with high dose unwritten Amoxil in instances of terrible pneumonia is tantamount to WHO recommendations of hospitalizations and i/v antibiotics. Similarly in another survey from Pakistan showed that local wellness workers were able to handle terrible pneumonia instances at place with high dosage Amoxil ( 52 ) . Survey from Bangladesh ( 53 ) reports the rhinal passenger car rate of 47 % and besides reports the early colonisation in rural population. The survey besides reports that 69 % of invasive strains were immune to cotrimoxazole. The ANSORP survey reported 41 % non-susceptible strains to penincillin in Srilanka and approximately 4 % in India ( 54 ) . The IBIS survey ( 16 ) reported 60 % opposition to chloramphenicol, Principen, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, or Erythrocin ; with 32 % isolates resistant to more than 3 antimicrobic drugs. Kunango et Al ( 55 ) reported that out of 150 clinical isolates from invasive pneumococcal infections, merely 11 ( 7.3 % ) isolates were comparatively immune to penicillin, although 64 were immune to one or more antibiotics particularly cotrimoxazole, Achromycin and Chloromycetin. In the ISCAP test ( 56 ) the opposition form of S. pneumoniae to assorted antibiotics was: cotrimoxazole 66.3 % , chloramphenicol 9.0 % , oxacillin 15.9 % and erythromycin 2.8 % .So the antibiotic opposition becomes another menace. In India, the most common serogroups colonising the nasopharynx of kids are 6, 14, 19, and 15 ( 38, 57 ) . IBIS survey ( 16 ) studies serotype 1,6 and 19 to be the most common serotypes isolated from either blood or CSF samples of the kids with invasive disease. Rijal et Al ( 49 ) found that serotypes 1,5 A ; 4 were most normally isolated from the patients of IPD and besides reported that 52 % of isolates were immune to cotrimoxazole. Decision: The systematic reappraisal concludes that S. pneumoniae is a major bacterial cause of invasive bacterial diseases in kids of SAARC states. The outgrowth of immune strains of Diplococcus pneumoniae are indicating towards the demand for revisiting the intervention recommendations and besides do a call for explicating preventative steps to decrease the prevalence of invasive pneumococcal diseases. The usage of antibiotic which is less immune and easy to administrate should be considered. Pneumococcal conjugate vaccinum, after cognizing the prevalent serotypes and there coverage, should be considered by the policy shapers. Conflict of Interests: None stated Role of the Funding Agency: The reappraisal was supported and funded by ICMR, New Delhi. The support bureau did non interfere with the reappraisal procedure or the consequences. Recognitions: We would wish to thank Dr. Samir K Saha ( ICDDR, Bangladesh ) , Dr. Z.A. Bhutta A ; Dr S.Q. Nizami ( AKU, Karachi, Pakistan ) for supplying us with their publications on pneumonia ; we would besides wish to thank Dr. Kay Dickerson of John Hopkins University U.S. for assisting us with the statistical methods. How to cite Burden Invasive Pneumococcal Disease Health And Social Care Essay, Essay examples

The Impact of Space Debris on the Environment

Question: Discuss the impact of space debris on the environment? Answer: Introduction The collection of de-functioning man-made objects in space such as spent rocket stages, old satellites, and fragments from disintegration, collision parts and erosion are known as space debris or space junk. There are many sources of space debris. They can be dead spacecraft, lost equipment, boosters as well as weapons. During the past fifty years, nations in the world concerning space-fare have been trashing near the space of the earth without caring about the future effects on the global environment. Every year many satellites and rockets are being launched into the orbit of the earth. As a result, multiple objects have become Resident Space Objects or RSOs (BaiocchiWelser, 2010). This leads to space junk or space debris. Space debris impacts on the outside environment and internal environment of the earth as well. Scanning through the concept of global warming which is a very crucial part of the impact of space junk. The rise in average temperature of the surface of the earth due to the effect of the greenhouse gasses like the emission of carbon dioxide which is emitted from the burning of fossil fuels or deforestation is called Global warming. Global warming traps heat which is prevented from being escaping from the Earth. The effects rise due to global warming is known as greenhouse effects. The gasses which are being emitted due to global warming is called greenhouse gasses. The most significant greenhouse gas is water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide and ozone (Loomis, 2015). The slight increase in atmospheric levels of carbon dioxide (CO2) causes a considerable increase in temperature. Space Debris The space debris is a kind of junk or wastes that have been left by the human in space. In other words, the wastages materials which are no longer serves a useful purpose have been left by astronauts in the space called as space debris. The space debris can be formed by many resources such as discarded equipment, defunct satellites and rocket stages. The satellites can be damaged due to the high speed of the space debris which is running in the orbits of the earth. Also, many times satellites were destroyed due to the collision with the space debris. The space debris is very dangerous for the future space missions. Moreover, there is a huge risk factor is working behind the collisions which lead to the potential damages of rockets and it is increasing continuously. Moreover, this space debris also affects the atmosphere of earth. In other words, it is one of the main reason for global warming(Anderton, 2011). The Types of Space Debris The worlds first artificial satellite was launched in 1957 by the Soviet Union. Many effective reasons were involved behind the satellite launch such as new technological, military, political and scientific developments. During the process of the launch, many space debris was created in space. In that time, many countries including America were starting to send their space shuttles as well as satellites in space without any consideration about the impairment of the environment through the debris of space which has been created by launches of space shuttles as well as space satellites (Stjerna, 2013). To increase the space race, many Governments, as well as cell phone companies, DTH companies, and GPS, receives companies have launched thousands of satellites in space. Also, those satellites increase the majority of the space debris. Therefore, form the year 1957 till today there have been many satellites and space shuttles have been sending into the orbits of the earth and they have m ade a huge amount of space debris in space. Talking about the space ship junk, most of the astronauts left the parts of their rockets and space crafts which are no longer to use in the orbit of the earth because it is very expensive to retrieve those used parts of space ships. As a result, those large space debris were continuously revolving in the earths orbit until they fall back down or collide with other space junk(Stjerna, 2013). On the other hand, when the space shuttles were launched, there more than one rocket boosters were needed for the extra power force which helps to reach high enough to space and those rocket boosters were fired up in one by one stage(Draper Watson, 2006). In other words, those rocket booster does not have any role to play except boosting the main space shuttles. At the time of final stage, the last rocket booster was fired off very late, and other space crafts were getting trapped in the earths orbit. Moreover, those rocket boosters collided with other satellites and create many small pieces of space debris which are very harmful to the environment of earth. There are two types of space debris were discussed in above section which influences the danger for the future mission due to the collision of space debris. Talking about the impact of those space on the space environment is very effective and harmful. Many types of research proved that the space junks which were formed due to the collision of two or more martial space objectives are moving around the orbit of the earth until they were fall back (Stabroth et al., 2008). Apart from that, many space centers left flying fuel tanks in space for the emergency purpose. Whatever, those fuel containers also flow up due to collision with space debris and create massive space junk through the explosion. Moreover, due to the explosion, many raw materials were burned up and create inorganic space wastage which increases the temperature of earths orbit. Minimize the Effects of Space Debris After the accomplishment of the mission, most of the spacecraft left a huge amount of junk in the orbits which is one of the significant reason of space debits. NASA and other space centers should pay more attention to the equipment related junk which was converted into space debris. On the other hand, space shuttles and space satellites should be manufactured according to the space environment(Williamson, 2006). If the space environment is continuously damaged, then the future mission of space journey will be completely hazard. Apart from that, the astronauts should implement the following protection strategies to decrease the space debris. The protection strategy In order prohibit the current space debris population most of the designers of space vehicles implement many protective techniques in their production process. There is a different kind of space debris moving in the orbit of the earth; some space junk might be radioactive. So, the space shuttles and as well as space satellites should be protected by a strong shield. Also, the shield includes some several layers of various natural parts. Polymers like polyvinyl chloride are one of the significant layers of the shield(Bueren, BohemenVisscher, 2011). Collision avoidance in space When two or more space debris crashed into each other, then a collision happens. To decrease the level of the collision, many governments decided that the parts of the satellites should be made according to the catchable shape of ground-based space surveillance systems. NASA and other space centers should be more careful about the current position of their satellites and shuttles(Hu, 2012). The waste materials of the rocket booster are one of the main reasons for collision. After the fired off the booster, the layers of the rocket was separated in the orbits of the earth. On the other hand, the astronauts need to focus on the used materials of themselves should be preserved safely. Talking about the fuel containers that should be handled by experienced astronauts because the explosion of fuel tanks is the significant cause of the collision(Rae, n.d.). Impacts of Space Debris Environment on the Space System Operation The four factors determine that how space debris environment affect the operation of a space system. They are: Time in orbit Orbital altitude Projected area Orbital inclination From the above four factors, time in orbit, orbital altitude and projected area are the dominant factors(Bohannon, 2015). During shuttle mission, satellites also collide which results in large space debris. Apart from large debris, small debris has also caused damaged to operational space systems(Haugen, Musser Lovelace, 2010). The damage can be divided into two parts. The first category of damage is caused to subsystems or surface and the second category is the effect on operations. When other explorers come to space to explore and invent innovative ideas, concepts and planets, they face serious problems with millions of space debris floating in space during their journey(Kortenkamp, 2008). Here are some examples of damage that impact the surface of operational system: The shuttle windows get damaged. The severing of SEDS-2 or Small Expendable Deployer System-2 tether. Other exposed shuttle surface get damaged. HST high gain antenna also gets damaged. During the wide field imaging, the astronomers observe an increase in some trails per plate. These trails are caused by space debris. The space debris trailing entirely negate photometric observation when debris crosses narrow photometric field(Watson, 2015). Impacts of Global Warming and its Measurements As stated by scientists about the model of the climate, that, during the 21st century there will be an increase in temperature of 1.1 degree Celsius to 2.9 degree Celsius. This temperature is the lowest emission scenario and 2.4 degree Celsius to 6.4 degree Celsius is the highest(Dickey Zakaib, 2011). The scientist predicts that a rise in temperature of more than 2.5 degree Celsius could result in great losses in GDP or Gross Domestic Product. The increase in temperature also affects hundreds of millions of people via the increased coastal flooding, increase in health impacts as well as the reduction of water supplies. On the other hand, glaciers have shrunk, lakes are breaking up earlier, plants and animal ranges have shifted, and trees are flowering sooner. According to Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change or IPCC, the extent of changes in climate impacts on particular regions(Budzianowski, 2011). They will vary over time as well as with the ability of various environmental an d societal systems for mitigation or adaption for a change. Different fuels which can cause global warming is used by spacecraft. However, all the above effects are caused by the spacecraft and its components used. Effective measures to reduce global warming caused due to space debris Here are some ideas for solutions from space("Erratum", 2015). These solutions are however tough and imaginary to accomplish, but the implementation will be different from the ideas. 1. A big asteroid should be dragged with a mass larger than 500000 tons to hide a part of the sunlight. 2. The upper parts of the clouds should be whitened to increase the reflectivity by 3 percent. It will also reflect a larger amount of sunlight(Zastrow, 2014). 3. A big mirror should be launched with a surface are of a 1600000-kilometer square, or many smaller ones circling round the earth. They will reflect 1 percent of sunlight. To normalize the temperature of the earth, this would be enough(Simon, 2010). Now, some realistically possible ideas should be followed for solutions from space. They are as follows: 1. During the space exploration, astronauts should take less amount of principal products with them to minimize the production of waste(Sparrow, 2012). They should make reusable products instead of disposable products. The spacecraft should have a reusable unit where used products are reproduced again for further use. 2. On the walls of the spacecraft and rocket, insulation should be added to minimize the production of heat. While sleeping time, astronauts should switch off the engines to reduce heat production. As a result, global warming will not rise(Allin, 2011). Conclusion During any space mission, when space shuttle leaves Earth and enters the space, it leaves behind the parts in space which is not required for their whole journey. These parts help a space shuttle to leave the earth against the gravitational force. These parts cause space debris. This space debris falls in the category of large space debris. It is a type of pollution caused by humans. Apart from soil, water and air, space is also polluted. It is the responsibility of the science and humans to keep a neat and clean space. References Baiocchi, D., Welser, W. (2010). Confronting space debris. Santa Monica, CA: RAND. Bohannon, J. (2015). Video: Watch 60 years of space junk accumulate in 1 minute. Science. https://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.aae0154 Budzianowski, W. (2011). Time delay of global warming. International Journal Of Global Warming, 3(3), 289. https://dx.doi.org/10.1504/ijgw.2011.043424 Dickey Zakaib, G. (2011). Telescope will track space junk. 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